Gender norms and women’s empowerment

EPMA measures empowerment directly, using instruments it helped develop and validate. Measures include women’s and girls’ empowerment (whether a choice exists, whether she can exercise it, and achieve it), reproductive autonomy, decision-making over health care and movement, reproductive coercion, age at marriage, violence during pregnancy (panel study) and, from 2026, gender norms held by men (male survey).